Walk through the Siq at Petra and look carefully at the walls. Among the natural striations of the sandstone, you will find carved channels about 20 centimetres wide and 10 centimetres deep running along both sides of the canyon. These channels, cut with extraordinary precision 2,000 years ago, formed part of a hydraulic system that collected, stored, and distributed water throughout the city. Terracotta pipes fitted inside carried water under pressure. The springs were augmented by dams and cisterns that harvested winter rainfall. Petra, in one of the driest regions on earth, had running water.
This engineering intelligence is the key to understanding the Nabataeans. They were not passive inhabitants of a convenient canyon. They were the masters of a trade empire built on two foundations: control of the overland incense routes between Arabia and the Mediterranean, and the ability to survive — and thrive — in environments where others could not. Water was their competitive advantage in the desert. Their city at Petra was its most spectacular expression.
Origins: from nomadic tribe to trading empire
The Nabataeans appear in historical records for the first time around the 4th century BC. When the Macedonian general Antigonus attempted to subjugate them in 312 BC — the earliest account of direct military contact — he found a people who were deliberately nomadic: no permanent settlements, no agriculture, no wine. The Greek historian Diodorus Siculus recorded their refusal to submit to sedentary life.
This record is puzzling given what came next: within two centuries, the same people had built one of the most sophisticated cities in the ancient Near East. What changed was trade. The Nabataeans controlled the overland routes along which frankincense and myrrh moved north from southern Arabia (Yemen — ancient “Arabia Felix”) and east toward the Mediterranean coast. These aromatics were essential commodities in the ancient world — used in religious ritual, medicine, embalming, and cosmetics by Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and everyone between. The quantities traded were vast; the profits were enormous.
The Nabataeans positioned themselves at the intersection of these routes and charged tolls for safe passage. Their capital, which they called Raqmu (and which the Greeks called Petra — “rock” — for its setting in sandstone canyons), grew from a defensible stronghold into an international trading city. By the 1st century BC, Petra was one of the most prosperous cities in the ancient world.
The water engineers of the desert
The Nabataean hydraulic system at Petra is an extraordinary achievement. The site receives very little rainfall — perhaps 100–150 mm per year — but the Nabataeans captured virtually every drop. An extensive network of:
- Cisterns carved directly from bedrock, some holding tens of thousands of litres
- Dams across wadis to capture flash flood water
- Channels cut into canyon walls to direct water toward cisterns
- Terracotta pipes for pressurised distribution
…allowed a city of 20,000–30,000 people to survive and expand in a desert canyon. The Siq channels alone fed a major cistern at the Treasury end of the canyon. Similar systems operated throughout the surrounding territory.
This hydraulic expertise was not unique to Petra — Nabataean sites across the Negev desert of Israel show equally sophisticated water harvesting — but Petra is the most dramatic example.
Architecture: the carved city
Petra’s architecture reflects a Nabataean aesthetic that blends Hellenistic Greek, Egyptian, and indigenous Arabian traditions. The carved facades you see throughout the site — the Treasury, the Royal Tombs, the Monastery — are not buildings in the conventional sense. They are facades carved directly into the sandstone cliff face, with interior chambers cut behind them.
This technique is paradoxical: it is simultaneously simpler than free-standing construction (the rock provides the structure) and immensely difficult (carving top-down through the sandstone requires precise planning and enormous labour). The question of how the carving was accomplished — working from scaffolding erected on the cliff face, starting at the top and working downward — is visible in the unfinished facades elsewhere in the site.
The Treasury (Al-Khazneh) — The most famous Nabataean monument, probably built as a royal mausoleum for King Aretas III around 100 BC. The Hellenistic facade (Corinthian capitals, a broken pediment, classical friezes) reflects the cosmopolitan culture of the Nabataean court.
The Monastery (Ad Deir) — The largest Nabataean carved monument, 48 metres wide and 45 metres high. Probably built in the 1st century AD, later re-used as a Byzantine church (the cross scratched into the interior walls dates from this period). The simplified facade suggests a later date than the Treasury, when Nabataean architecture had absorbed Greek influences more completely.
The Royal Tombs — A series of monumental facades on the eastern cliff face: the Urn Tomb, Silk Tomb, Corinthian Tomb, and Palace Tomb. These were the resting places of Nabataean royalty. The Urn Tomb was converted into a Byzantine church in 447 AD.
The Colonnaded Street — Unlike the carved monuments, the Roman Cardo (colonnaded street) represents free-standing construction from the post-annexation period (after 106 AD), when Roman engineering replaced Nabataean stone-cutting in the valley floor.
Trade: the incense routes
The Nabataean trade network extended from the port of Gaza on the Mediterranean coast to the frankincense-growing highlands of southern Arabia. The primary commodity was frankincense (Boswellia resin) — the most important aromatic in the ancient world, burned in temples from Rome to Jerusalem, burned at royal courts from Egypt to Persia.
The overland route from south Arabia to Petra was approximately 2,400 km. Camel caravans could cover 25–30 km per day, making the journey roughly 80 days each way. The Nabataeans maintained a series of way-stations along the route — wells, rest houses, and fortified posts — at regular intervals through the desert. The route through the Negev (Nabataean Highlands) is still partly visible and is a UNESCO-listed landscape.
Beyond frankincense, the Nabataeans traded in myrrh, bitumen from the Dead Sea, copper from Sinai, spices from India arriving at Arabian ports, silk from China, and agricultural products from the Jordan Valley. Petra was the hub through which all of it passed.
Religion and writing
The Nabataean religion was polytheistic, with a primary deity named Dushara (related to the stone massif of the Petra highlands) and a companion goddess, Al-Uzza (associated with Venus). Religious practice included veneration of stone blocks (baetyli) — simple carved rectangular stones representing the divine presence. Examples can be seen throughout the Petra site in carved niches.
The Nabataean script is historically significant: it is a cursive form of Aramaic that became the direct ancestor of Arabic script. The Arabic alphabet as used today developed directly from Nabataean writing via an intermediate Syriac form. When you read Arabic — in shop signs, in the Quran, in a text message — you are using a script that traces its origins to Petra’s traders.
Aretas IV and the kingdom’s peak
The greatest Nabataean king was Aretas IV, who ruled from 9 BC to 40 AD. Under his rule, the kingdom reached its maximum extent and Petra its greatest prosperity. Aretas IV is mentioned in the New Testament (2 Corinthians 11:32 — “the ethnarch of the King Aretas” was guarding Damascus when Paul escaped). His daughter was the first wife of Herod Antipas, whose divorce of her contributed to Herod’s conflict with John the Baptist.
Aretas IV’s building programme at Petra was extensive. The Treasury in its current form may date to his reign. Hundreds of coins bearing his image survive. His reign represents the apex of Nabataean political and economic power.
Decline: the Roman annexation of 106 AD
The Nabataean kingdom ended not through conquest but through absorption. In 106 AD, Emperor Trajan annexed the kingdom and created the new Roman province of Arabia. The last Nabataean king, Rabbel II, had died without providing clear succession arrangements; the Romans moved in without significant resistance.
Petra remained inhabited and prosperous under Roman rule — the colonnaded street and the urban buildings date from the post-annexation period. But the trade routes that had sustained the kingdom began to shift. Maritime trade through the Red Sea bypassed the overland routes. The Palmyrene merchants of Syria increasingly dominated what remained of the caravan trade. By the 3rd century AD, Petra was in economic decline. A major earthquake in 363 AD further damaged the city. It was effectively abandoned by the 7th century.
Nabataean art and aesthetics
Beyond the carved facade architecture, the Nabataeans produced a distinctive art tradition that is worth knowing about before visiting Petra.
Painted pottery: Nabataean painted pottery is among the thinnest and most technically accomplished ever produced in the ancient Near East. The eggshell-thin walls were achieved through a combination of fine clay processing and skilled wheel-throwing. The decoration — geometric and floral patterns in reddish-brown paint on a cream background — is instantly recognisable. The Jordan Archaeological Museum in Amman has an excellent collection.
Sculpture: Nabataean religious sculpture tended toward abstraction. The baetyl (sacred stone) — a plain rectangular block representing a deity — was the primary cultic object rather than figural sculpture. Where figural sculpture does appear (some heads and busts from Petra are known), it shows Hellenistic influence combined with more schematic indigenous elements.
Frescoes: Several Nabataean painted interiors survive in fragmentary form. The painted biclinium at Little Petra (Siq al-Barid, 8 km from the main Petra site) preserves a remarkable vine-scroll ceiling painting — putti harvesting grapes among twisting vines. This imagery is both Hellenistic in style and resonant with the Nabataean agricultural economy (wine production was important in the Negev Nabataean settlements).
Nabataean writing on rock: Throughout the former Nabataean territory — at Wadi Rum, in the Sinai, along the incense route in the Negev — rock inscriptions in Nabataean script survive in considerable numbers. These are not formal monuments but practical marks: names, greetings, prayers, route markers. They give an intimate view of the literate Nabataean traveller recording a passage through the landscape.
The Nabataean legacy in modern Jordan
The Nabataean presence in Jordan extends well beyond Petra. Several sites deserve attention:
Little Petra (Siq al-Barid) — A small Nabataean settlement 8 km north of the main Petra site, free to enter and far less crowded. The painted biclinium (dining room) with its vine-scroll ceiling paintings is one of the finest intact Nabataean interior spaces surviving.
Oboda (Avdat, Israel/Negev) — A major Nabataean city in the Negev, now in Israel, with well-preserved urban remains and a remarkable wine-production installation.
Mampsis (Mamshit, Israel) — Another Negev Nabataean city, smaller but very well preserved.
Wadi Rum petroglyphs — Nabataean inscriptions carved into the sandstone of Wadi Rum — some of the earliest examples of Nabataean script. See /wadi-rum/.
Frequently asked questions about the Nabataean civilization
Were the Nabataeans Arab?
Yes. The Nabataeans were an Arab people — the earliest Arab group to establish a major state and leave a substantial archaeological and written record. Their language was a form of Aramaic (the lingua franca of the ancient Near East) but their personal names, tribal structure, and cultural identity were Arab. The name “Nabataean” is related to the Arabic root for “to appear suddenly” or “to spring forth.”
What happened to the Nabataeans after the Roman annexation?
The Nabataean population did not disappear. They assimilated into the Roman provincial culture of Arabia, gradually adopting Greek and Latin in official contexts while maintaining their own traditions and script. The Nabataean script evolved into the early Arabic script. The Nabataean elite became Roman citizens. Their descendants likely persist in the populations of modern Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and the Negev.
How did the Nabataeans build their carved monuments?
The carved facades were created by starting at the top of the cliff face and working downward. Workers on scaffolding or ropes cut the upper cornice first, then the friezes and columns, then the lower facade elements. The interior chambers were separately cut from the front face inward. This top-down technique allowed scaffolding to be removed progressively as work descended.
Is Petra the only Nabataean site in Jordan?
No. Nabataean remains exist at many sites across southern Jordan: Little Petra (Siq al-Barid), Wadi Rum, Oboda, Mampsis, and various other sites along the former trade routes. But Petra is incomparably the most complete and impressive.
What language did the Nabataeans write?
The Nabataeans used a cursive form of Aramaic script. Their own spoken language was likely a form of North Arabian. The Nabataean script is historically significant as the direct ancestor of Arabic script — a line of descent that shaped how 300 million people read and write today.
Who was King Aretas IV?
Aretas IV (reigned 9 BC – 40 AD) was the greatest Nabataean king. He oversaw the kingdom’s maximum territorial extent and Petra’s greatest architectural programme. He is mentioned in the New Testament (2 Corinthians 11:32) and his coins are among the most common Nabataean artefacts surviving today.
What trade goods moved through Petra?
The primary commodity was frankincense from southern Arabia, but Nabataean caravans also carried myrrh, spices from India, silk from China arriving at Arabian ports, bitumen from the Dead Sea, copper from Sinai, and agricultural products. Petra was the fulcrum through which all these goods passed on their way to Rome, Egypt, and the Mediterranean markets.
Plan your visit
Understanding the Nabataean context transforms a visit to Petra from a spectacle into a story. Read this guide before you walk through the Siq and every facade becomes more legible. For the site itself, see /guides/petra-complete-guide/. For the hike to the Monastery, see /guides/monastery-petra-hike/. For the back-door trail through Nabataean back country, see /guides/petra-back-door/. Petra is covered in /destinations/petra/ with accommodation and practical logistics.
3-hour private guided tour of Petra: Treasury, Royal Tombs, Roman Cardo Petra by Night: candlelit Siq and Treasury musical show